2/24 Lecture

Islamic Jerusalem


-Sasanians (last pre-Islamic Persian Empire take Palestine and Jerusalem 614-628 CE
-Byzantine Emperor Heraclius retake Jerusalem 628 CE
-Muslim Caliph Umar takes Jerusalem 638 CE
-After Muhammad, two divisions -> Shi'ites (kinship-based) and Sunnis (tradition-based, also become known as the Umayyad dynasty)


Islamic Terms
-aelia: the city of the Temple
-Haram al-Sharif: "the noble sanctuary" ~ Temple Mount
-Qibla: direction of prayer (towards Mecca). The original tradition was praying towards Jerusalem, but changed to Mecca after Muhammad
-Mihrab: niche pointing the direction of prayer
-the Kaaba in Mecca: stone box with curtains over it. Focal point of worship/most scared site in Islam. Black corner (eastern corner) absorbed traditions in Jerusalem~ known to date back to Adam&Eve. Also, according to Qur'an, the Kaaba was rebuilt by Abraham&Ishmael. 
-Five Pillars: Shahada "testimony," salat "prayer," zakat "almsgiving," sawm "fasting," and hajj "pilgrimage"


Umayyad Jerusalem (638-750 CE)
-Abd al-Malik restores Haram al-Sharif 
-Abd al-Malik builds Dome of the Rock 691 CE
     -purpose: to divert pilgrimage from Mecca to Jerusalem
     -interior: no graven images or pictures -> geometric designs & caligraphy
     -mosaic inscription of Qur'anic verses around interior and at entrances explicitly repudiate Christianity's view of Jesus as son of God, although they confirm him as a prophet
     -traditions absorbed: Mt. Moriah, Rock is the site of the Holy of Holies, was a stop on Muhammad's Mi'raj, under is "The Well of Souls," place of final judgment
     -1099 Crusaders conquer Jerusalem and convert Dome of the Rock into a church
     -1187 Salah ad-Din reconquers Jerusalem and restores Dome of the Rock
-Muhammad on al-buraq -> Mi'raj (night journey) -> taken to the farthest mosque, in Jerusalem -> al-Aqsa Mosque
     -built between 705 and 715 CE by Caliph Walid al-Malik
     -built above "Stables of Solomon" and over Umar's mosque & remains of Herod's stoa
     -tradition: prayer here is worth 500 elsewhere
-Dome of the Chain: place where final judgment will occur in the "end of days," appears to be the geometric center of the Haram esh-Sharif
-great Umayyad palaces: built against the southern wall of Temple Mount, built over remains of Byzantine monumental and residential buildings destroyed by Sasanians, equipped with fresh water and sewage systems, decorated with carved and molded stucco, frescoes, and floors paved with flagstones and mosaics
-tolerance of Christians and Jews
-continuing  pilgrimage of Jews & Christians 


This is actually the first time I've learned about the Islamic religion. It was very interesting to learn the origin of the religion and how Islam relates to Jerusalem. As a Christian, I have always considered Jerusalem as a Christian city--it is where Jesus was crucified and resurrected. So to learn that the same city embodies similar amount of significance for a different religion was very eye-opening. For Muslims, Haram al-Sharif, the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque, and other other buildings represent the Islamic axis mundi, their Center of the World just as much as other sites in Jerusalem represent the Christian axis mundi. I am very interested in what Islam had over the other religions or empires that gave them ultimate control over this region, because it is still an Islamic city today. 

2/22 Lecture

Byzantine Jerusalem (312-637 CE)


Rise of Christianity and the Metaphysical Jerusalem
-faith is spiritualized
-Temple is rejected: Jesus "predicts" the destruction of Temple (Mark 13:1-2, Luke 21:20-24), spiritual worship stressed over physical worship (John 4:19-26)
-vision of "new" Jerusalem (Revelation 21-22): Jerusalem still plays an important role, but becomes symbolized
-Jerusalem becomes important to Christians because it is where Jesus was said to have been crucified, buried, and resurrected
-Madaba Map: mosaic map of the Holy Land on church floor (in Jordan)
     -accurate depiction of the Holy Land in 6th C. CE
     -Jerusalem looks like a Roman city
     -Temple Mount no longer depicted as the center of Jerusalem -> Church of Holy Sepulcher is the new center
-Church of the Holy Sepulcher
     -primal myths transferred from Temple: Adam buried at Golgotha, Jesus crucified on Golgotha, Abraham bound Isaac on Golgatha, God incarnate, etc.
-Nea Church: resembles Solomon's Temple -> rebuilding a structure that will commemorate Holy Site and absorb already existing traditions


Byzantine History
-Emperor Diocletian institutes Tetrarchy 285 CE: Tetrarchy not very successful...
-Constantine becomes Emperor 312 CE
     -flips Pacifist message of Jesus -> fight/kill in the name of Jesus
     -Edict of Milan 313 CE: legalized Christianity
     -Council of Nicaea 324 CE: theoretical construct of the doctrine of Christianity
     -> Constantine fundamentally transformed Christianity. Formed the orthodox Christianity and called anything the differed to this orthodox a heresy. Did he "use" Christianity to unite the Empire? Were all these achievements under Constantine considered the glorification or destruction of Christianity?
-Helena comes to Jerusalem in 324 CE
     -First Christian pilgrimage
     -dedicates Church of Nativity, Church of the Ascension; rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (becomes the new axis mundi)
-Julian "the Apostate" rejected Christianity and rebuilt the Jewish Temple (361-363 CE)
-Theodosius names Christianity the state religion 391 CE
-Empress Eudocia makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem 438 CE; builds churches, hospitals, hospices in Jerusalem
-Justinian expands Jerusalem 527-565 CE
     -Nea Church (built for St. Mary, the mother of God), Church of Holy Zion, expansion of Cardo


I thought that this lecture's emphasis on the spiritualization of the faith was very interesting. The spiritualized faith, "Christianity," is the religion I believe in so learning about how this spiritualization came about from a historical perspective was eye-opening because I had always believed that my beliefs about God dwelling in us and us being the Temple for God originated from the beginning of time and was not the "consequence" of a historical event, such as the destruction of the Temple and increased Hellenization. I could understand how these "new" topics would be very confusing to the Jews, whose faith rested on the idea that God was a physical being that appeared to them and that one needed to physically go to the Temple and worship there and nowhere else because that was the place that was assigned by God Himself. The history and evolution of religion is truly fascinating in this sense because I am still very certain that the beliefs that I hold onto are what true. I perceive my beliefs and the history of my beliefs separately, however conflicting they may be...

2/17 Lecture

Jerusalem in Revolt
-during Roman rule 63 BCE- 614 CE
-Herod dies -> his kingdom divided among his 3 sons (Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Herod Philip)
-Herodian rulers gradually replaced by Roman procurators -> direct Roman rule
-Pontius Pilate: only Roman governor of Judea mentioned in the Gospels. 


First Revolt (66-73 CE)
-Sources: messianism, Jewish nationalism, growing internal Jewish conflict, inept Rome governors/administration,...
-Evidence for the 1st revolt from Revolt coins: "for the freedom of Zion" etc.
-Revolt breaks out in 66 CE; Roman governor Mucianus defeated -> Rome appoints Vespasian to conquer Galilee, Transjordan 67 CE -> Vespasian proclaimed Emperor; Titus takes charge in 70 CE
-Temple & Jerusalem destroyed in 70 CE by Titus
-Vespasian instituted the fiscus iudaicus (a special tax on Jews)
-Roman victory displayed on coins (Judea Capta, Judea Devicta)


Second "Bar-Kokhba" Revolt (132-135 CE)
-Bar-Kokhba, Akiba, and Messianism
-institutional and spiritual crisis
-Jerusalem rebuilt as Aelia Capitolina by Hadrian, Jews forbidden to visit Jerusalem
-used revolt coins as propaganda to rekindle Jewish independence
     -many coins were overstrikes
     -wanted to promote Jerusalem as eternal capitol
     -modeled after coins that failed first revolt against Rome
     -the rhetoric toned down from year to year..
-Simon called himself nasi, which means 'prince', which is the highest non-royal and non-priestly title possible
-Outcome: Emperor Hadrian suppressed revolt; banned circumcision; rebuilt Jerusalem as a Roman city with a temple to Jupiter; banned Jews from the city
-Rise of synagogue as a response to the destruction of the Temple


The end of this lecture marked the end of the Jerusalem for a long while. After experiencing two major events that destroyed Jewish nationalism and religion, Jews had to find alternate ways to continue to be Jewish. This meant that they had to think of some kind of Jewish movements that did not depend Jerusalem or the Temple to be the center of their faith. They needed a more spiritualized God instead of a physical or tangible God that would always be with them wherever they were. Jewish identity needed to be defined by not being at the Temple but what one ate and drank, how one talked, dressed, and prayed. Religion had to get personalized.  I've always viewed religion as being something constant and unchanging, so it was interesting to see how necessary it is for religion to adapt to change. If religion was resistant to change, it would just cease to exist whenever it encounters a catastrophe.

2/15 Lecture

Roman Jerusalem/ Herodian Jerusalem/ Jesus' Jerusalem


-Hasmoneans defeated by Roman general Pompey
-Roman rule in Palestine began in 63 BCE
-Idumean Antipater installed as procurator; sons installed as local rulers (Herod in Galilee): Romans chose a family from Idumea because since they were forcibly "Judaized" during the Hasmonean period, they'd be more sympathetic to Roman rule
-Romans install Herod as king of Judea in 40 BCE


Herod "The Great"
-King of the Jews from 37 to 4 BCE
-paranoid and impulsive
-effective for Rome, but hated by the Jews
-best known for massive building projects: created jobs for the Jewish people
-2nd Temple was expanded by Herod--also referred to as the 3rd Temple
     -Roman influences
     -Area: >172,000 square yards
     -retaining walls towered 80 ft above street
-built Herodian theater at Caesarea: it was okay to name after Caesar because Caesarea was away from Jerusalem
-Herodian port at Caearea: artificial port
-Herodion: Herod's palace and fortress
-Was Herod a good king or bad king?
     -Accommodated the Jews: did not defile Temple, allowed Jews to select their High Priest, offered generous relief during famine, put inanimate objects on coins, avoided building pagan temples in Jewish areas, employed numerous Jewish workers as builders
     -but Jews always hated him, worked for romans, and was an impulsive dictator


Jesus' Jerusalem
-Christians believe that Jesus is the Davidic Messiah
-BUT, there is no archaeological evidence for the existence of Jesus


Herod was hated by the Jews and is recorded as an evil King in the Hebrew Bible. However, he was sensitive to the Jewish traditions as well as submissive to the Romans that put him in power. He also created a lot of jobs for the Jewish people, and Jerusalem, under his reign, prospered. Thus, from a historical and unbiased point of view, Herod was a politically adept king. 


Also, as a Christian, I believe in the existence of God even without any historical or archaeological evidence. However, many of the non-religious scholars believe that Jesus was a prophet, rabbi, and teacher. What's hard to understand for me is how can scholars believe that Jesus really existed as some kind of a moral teacher that spread the "good news" but at the same time completely disregard what Jesus' existence embodied. Jesus proclaimed that he was the Son of God when he preached. For a nonbeliever, this had to have been blasphemous. So how can nonreligious scholars believe that Jesus existed, without believing the essence of what he had preached. Either he didn't exist or he was a heretic... 

2/10 Thursday

Hellenistic Jerusalem (333-167 BCE)

Alexander the Great conquered an immensely vast area during 336 – 323 BCE-defeats Persian King Darius 333 BCE

-captures Jerusalem 332 BCE

-death of Alexander 323 BCE -> division of Kingdom

-Josephus: main historian of Jewish history (Antiquities)

Ptolemies control Palestine, 300-201 BCE

-Jerusalem given autonomy, could chose own High Priest

-During this period, Jerusalem was under the secular leadership of the priests rather than kings. The High Priest becomes the civil administrator

Seleucids Rule

-Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V in 198 BCE

-Thoroughly and aggressively advocate Hellenism (gymnasium, even sells high priesthood)

-Turn Jerusalem into Polis (cultural and intellectual center)

-suppress Jewish resistance: loot the Temple Treasury, outlaw Jewish religious practices, defame Temple Alter, convert Temple into Temple of Zeus

Hellenization

-every aspect of Jewish life affected—language, literature, philosophy, religion

-Jewish tombs looked Greek

-Jewish burial inscriptions contained Jewish symbols, but Greek inscriptions

-Sepphoris Mosaic: Jewish home has center piece contains Greek mythology story -> shows how Hellenized Judaism has become

-Beth Alpha Mosaic: Zodiac in synagogue

-even Bible goes Greek

Reaction to Hellinization

-varied: some welcomed it and other resisted

-Jewish infighting became intense: led to sects and factions -> leads to revolt

Hasmonean Jerusalem

Maccabean Revolt

-led by Judas Maccabeus and “conservative” Jews

-attacked “renegade” Jews and Seleucid armies

-employed guerilla tactics

-revolt was amazingly successful

-regained control of Jerusalem and Temple from Seleucids

-resumed sacrifical system

-established Hanukkah

Hasmonean Rule (165/4 – 63 BCE)

-rebuilt on the lines of the “First Kings”: problem because they’re not of the genealogy

-restores the “Golden Age”

-greatly expanded Jewish territory

-Hasmonean rules became increasingly Hellenized, secular, corrupt: assumed office of High Priest as well as King, insensitive to Jewish religions traditions, forcibly “Judaism” surrounding gentile regions

-got legitimacy by connecting their kingdom to David’s & Solomon’s Kingdom

-Hasmonean’s Dyansty ends when Romans conquer in 63 BCE 


Was Jerusalem called Palestine during the Hellenistic Period? In the lecture, it's always quoted as "Jerusalem and Palestine," so are they not interchangeable? 
Also, how was it possible for the Jewish army to overthrow the Seleucid army?? Given their circumstances at the time, it seems like such an impossible feat... It's also interesting to see how the Jews tried to free themselves from the oppressive regime but they became an oppressive regime themselves. It is something that we constantly see throughout history.. and it dates back all the way back to BCE. 

2/8 Lecture

Persian Jerusalem & "2nd Temple" Period

Persian King Cyrus' Edict of Return, 539 BCE
-Cyrus announces a general return to homelands, fostering the image of "Liberator" for the Jews in exile
-Evidence comes from “Cyrus Cylinder” and 2 Chronicles 36:22-23, Ezra 1:1-3, and Isaiah 45:1-7 (Cyrus is portrayed as Messiah- this becomes problematic because Cyrus is a non-Davidic King)

Judaism and Zoroastrianism: Influence of Persian religion on Judaism
-Many books of the Bible written during the exile and were thus influenced by Persians
-six periods of Creation ~ 6 days of Creation; Mashya&Mashyana ~ Adam&Eve; introduction of evil counterpart, introduction of angels, etc.

Rebuilding of the “2^nd” Temple, 515 BCE
-Prophet Ezekiel’s vision of the Mobile God (Ezekiel 1): this vision is important because it is the first time the Ark reappears after it gets lost, which shows that God has reemerged and is still “here” for the people again.
-Temple rebuilt under Darius I (Haggai 1). Its construction and destruction parallel those of the First Temple – constructed “in the 2^nd month” and destruction of “9^th of Ab” (Ezra 3:8)
-Is Temple even needed after the exile? People have adapted to practicing their faith without the temple after the destruction of the First Temple and the exile. What defines being a Jew is praying, singing, reading/interpreting, celebrating holidays, and etc. (more of a lifestyle)
-Other “2^nd” Temples built because of different interpretations (Elephantine letter 30, Dead Sea Scrolls)
-Nehemiah 4:16-23: A lot of conflict and tension involving the reconstruction of the temple.

Post-exilic Jerusalem
-3 camps of Jews: 1-stay in Babylon, 2-go back to Jerusalem, 3-never left Jerusalem -> tension
-Population increase
-Poverty: Heavy taxation by Persian Empire
-Conflict with Samaritans (from North, were already in Jerusalem): Jews (worship on 2^nd Temple) vs. Samaritans (Worship differently on Temple on Mt. Gerizim)

What is the significance of Ezekiel’s vision of the new Ark? After the exile, hadn’t the Jews already rationalized their situation by saying that it wasn’t God’s physical presence but merely His Name that resided in the Temple? But I guess this new vision could still relate, because I don’t think the actual, physical Ark was ever found… it just gets replaced by the “Mobile Ark” vision.

One part of this lecture that stood out to me was the Persian influence, mainly from Zoroastrianism, on the Bible and Judaism as a whole. How can a religion that was already established be so easily adaptable to outside influences? How can authors of the Bible pick and choose from a completely different religion what they want to incorporate into their own faith? This also relates back to when Jews were dealing with cognitive dissonance—they had to reinterpret and make changes to their old beliefs to make more sense out of their current circumstance. Is religion really that easily changed and modified?

2/1 Tuesday

The Religion of a Book

-Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon: 4 ostracas that reference to a "rule" in scripture (Exodus 22:25-26). The question is did the writer of this letter know the law in Exodus and was citing it or was there a rule that was already established? Regardless, this evidence shows literature that parallels the Hebrew Bible. 

-Torah Amulets: pieces of jewelry that has the Blessing Prayer (from the book of Numbers) inscribed on them. Same question: Is it cited from the Bible or from oral tradition of the prayer that wasn't written down until later? 

-These evidences along with the Lachish letter show how significant writing has become. The fact that that oral tradition was starting to get written down made it "possible to scrutinize discourse in a different kind of way by giving oral communication a semi-permanent form" (Goody). Also, the fate of Jerusalem being considered from this point on will closely follow the interpretation of texts. 

Exile, Destruction, and Cognitive Dissonance

Events leading up to exile

-Rise of Babylonian Empire (612-562 BCE)

-King Nebuchadnezzar

-Fall of Jerusalem

-1st Babylonian Exile, 597 BCE

-2nd Babylonian Exile, 586 BCE: Destruction of the Temple, exile of the Elites

-3rd Babylonian Exile, 581 BCE

2 Conclusions of Josiah's Reign

-pre-exilic: Josiah lived and was killed by Neco, Egyptian ruler

-post-exilic: God was angry at Manasseh so the blame fell on Josiah, causing his death. 

-these contradictory conclusions came about because the Bible is attempting to explain God's "broken promise" 

So far, Davidic Dynasty ended, promise to David failed, Temple destroyed, the Ark of the Covenant missing.

So, the question is: What do you do when everything you've been told suddenly does not fit with reality or lived experience?

-Respond by singing the blues -> Book of Lamentation

-Redefine the Promise

-David's "forever" Promise must be conditional

-reinterpret "Name of God" in Jerusalem, not his physical presence

-Cognitive Dissonance: uncomfortable feeling from holding contradicting beliefs simultaneous. So what do you do? Abandon one faith, or try to rationalize? The Jewish people were trying to rationalize...

I find this idea of cognitive dissonance very thought-provoking. As Professor Cargill said, it is something that we deal with on a daily basis, but when the foundation of an entire religion is depended on it, how can one choose to simply rationalize?? If the evidence is all really true--that God abandoned His people and His city and His eternal promise--then how does going back and editing texts in the Bible fix this problem? It should shake the foundation of religions, but religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam still live on as strong as ever...

1/27 Thursday

Golden Age under Hezekiah

-growth of literature: Assyrian & Egyptian libraries were established during this time and Hezekiah also orders the State to compile literature to build up reputation and legend of the kingdom. This is significant because Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are religions based on "books"/literature. In this way, written law becomes more authoritative than the king.  

-centralized religion: Hezekiah knocks down other shrines that were used to worship God because he wanted to centralize and establish only one place in Jerusalem for worship. This was another indication that Hezekiah was preparing to rebel.

Who is the Messiah?

The definition of a messiah is the one who gets annointed with oil. In those days, only the High Priests and Kings were annointed. According to the texts in the Bible, the Messiahnic prophecies about deliverance from Assyria actually point toward Hezekiah, and not Jesus. These texts were written over 700 years before Jesus' time, but Christians, including me, believe that Isaiah's prophecies were long-distance and also relate to Jesus. However, in strict context of Isaiah's prophecies, Hezekiah's the "King of David" that was to save Israel from Assyria. 

This account of a fulfilled prophecy and of Jerusalem surviving the attack from Assyria is significant because it is the single greatest catalyst as to why Jerusalem grew into a legend and became a magnet for other legends and traditions. 

Josiah

-Hezekiah's grandson. He was considered a "good" king 

-deuteronomistic theology: good things -> God blesses you; bad things -> God curses you. 

-Retrun to "Old Time Religion": discovery of the "book of law/convenant," "Deuteronomistic" Reform, elimination of Foreign cults

-Literacy continued to grow immensely. Lachish letter is evidence that there was a negative stigma for not being able to read and write.